Taurine, energy drinks, and neuroendocrine effects
==================================================

* Jonathan J. Caine
* Thomas D. Geracioti

## ABSTRACT

Taurine is an amino acid found abundantly in brain, retina, heart, and reproductive organ cells, as well as in meat and seafood. But it is also a major ingredient in popular "energy drinks," which thus constitute a major source of taurine supplementation. Unfortunately, little is known about taurine’s neuroendocrine effects. The authors review the sparse data and provide a basic background on the structure, synthesis, distribution, metabolism, mechanisms, effects, safety, and currently proposed therapeutic targets of taurine.

KEY POINTS 
*   Energy drinks are widely consumed in the United States, with an estimated 354 million gallons sold in 2009, or approximately 5.25 L/year per person over age 10.

*   Taurine has been reported to have anti-inflammatory action. Supplementation has been proposed to have beneficial effects in epilepsy, heart failure, cystic fibrosis, and diabetes, and has been shown in animal studies to protect against neurotoxic insults from alcohol, ammonia, lead, and other substances.

*   Taurine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. It is structurally analogous to gamma-aminobutyric acid, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Taurine—an amino acid found in abundance in the human brain, retina, heart, and reproductive organs, as well as in meat and seafood—is also a major ingredient in “energy drinks” (Table 1).1,2 Given the tremendous popularity of these drinks in the United States, it would seem important to know and to recognize taurine’s neuroendocrine effects. Unfortunately, little is known about the effects of taurine supplementation in humans.

View this table:
[TABLE 1](http://www.ccjm.org/content/83/12/895/T1)

TABLE 1 
Taurine content of common energy drinks

This paper reviews the sparse data to provide clinicians some background on the structure, synthesis, distribution, metabolism, mechanisms, effects, safety, and proposed therapeutic targets of taurine.

## TAURINE’S THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL

Taurine has been reported to have widespread anti-inflammatory actions.3,4 Taurine supplementation has been proposed to have beneficial effects in the treatment of epilepsy,5 heart failure,6,7 cystic fibrosis,8 and diabetes9 and has been shown in animal studies to protect against neurotoxic insults from alcohol, ammonia, lead, and other substances.10–16

In addition, taurine analogues such as homotaurine and N-acetyl-homotaurine (acampro- sate) have been probed for possible therapeutic applications. Homotaurine has been shown to have antiamyloid activity that could in theory protect against the progression of Alzheimer disease,17 and acamprosate is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of alcohol use disorders.18

## TAURINE CONSUMPTION

Energy drinks are widely consumed in the United States, with an estimated 354 million gallons sold in 2009, or approximately 5.25 L / year per person over age 10.1 In 2012, US sales of energy drinks exceeded $12 billion,19 with young men, particularly those in the military deployed in war zones, being the biggest consumers.20–22 Analyses have found that of 49 nonalcoholic energy drinks tested, the average concentration of taurine was 3,180 mg/L, or approximately 750 mg per 8-oz serving.23,24 Popular brands include Red Bull, Monster, Rockstar (Table 1), NOS, Amp, and Full Throttle.

Taurine is plentiful in the human body, which contains up to 1 g of taurine per kg.25 Foods such as poultry, beef, pork, seafood, and processed meats have a high taurine content (Table 2).26–29 People who eat meat and seafood have plentiful taurine intake, whereas vegetarians and vegans consume much less and have significantly lower circulating levels30 because plants do not contain taurine in appreciable amounts.26,29

View this table:
[TABLE 2](http://www.ccjm.org/content/83/12/895/T2)

TABLE 2 
Taurine content of meats, seafood, and dairy products

The typical American diet provides between 123 and 178 mg of taurine daily.26 Consumption of one 8-oz energy drink can increase the average intake 6 to 16 times. A lacto-ovo vegetarian diet provides only about 17 mg of taurine daily, and an 8-oz energy drink can increase the average intake by 44 to 117 mg.26 And since a vegan diet provides essentially no taurine,30 energy drink intake in any amount would constitute a major relative increase in taurine consumption.

## ATTEMPTS TO STUDY TAURINE’S EFFECTS

Since most clinical trials to date have looked at the effects of taurine in combination with other ingredients such as caffeine, creatine, and glucose31–35 in drinks such as Red Bull, these studies cannot be used to determine the effects of taurine alone. In the few clinical trials that have tested isolated taurine consumption, data are not sufficient to make a conclusion on direct effects on energy metabolism.

Rutherford et al36 tested the effect of oral taurine supplementation (1,660 mg) on endurance in trained male cyclists 1 hour before exercise, but observed no effect on fluid intake, heart rate, subjective exertion, or timetrial performance. A small increase (16%) in total fat oxidation was observed during the 90-minute exercise period. Since mitochondria are the main location of fatty acid degradation, this effect may be attributed to taurine supplementation, with subsequent improvement in mitochondrial function.

Zhang et al37 found a 30-second increase in cycling energy capacity after 7 days of 6 g oral taurine supplementation, but the study was neither blinded nor placebo-controlled.

Kammerer et al38 tested the effect of 1 g of taurine supplementation on physical and mental performance in young adult soldiers 45 minutes before physical fitness and cognitive testing. This double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial found no effect of taurine on cardiorespiratory fitness indices, concentration, or immediate memory, nor did it find any effect of an 80-mg dose of caffeine.

In sum, the available data are far from sufficient to determine the direct effect of taurine consumption on energy metabolism in healthy people.

## PHARMACOLOGY OF TAURINE

### Chemical structure

Taurine, or 2-aminoethane sulfonic acid, is a conditionally essential amino acid, ie, we can usually make enough in our own bodies. It was first prepared on a large scale for physiologic investigation almost 90 years ago, through the purification of ox bile.39 It can be obtained either exogenously through dietary sources or endogenously through biosynthesis from methionine and cysteine precursors, both essential sulfurcontaining alpha-amino acids.40 Both sources are important to maintain physiologic levels of taurine, and either can help compensate for the other in cases of deficiency.41

The structure of taurine has two main differences from the essential amino acids. First, taurine’s amino group is attached to the betacarbon rather than the alpha-carbon, making it a beta-amino acid instead of an alpha-amino acid.42 Second, the acid group in taurine is sulfonic acid, whereas the essential amino acids have a carboxylic acid.43 Because of its distinctive structure, taurine is not used as a structural unit in proteins,43 existing mostly as a free amino acid within cells, readily positioned to perform several unique functions.

### Synthesis

De novo synthesis of taurine involves several enzymes and at least five pathways,44 mostly differing by the order in which sulfur is oxidized and decarboxylated.45

The rate-limiting enzyme of the predominant pathway is thought to be cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase (CSD), and its presence within an organ indicates involvement in taurine production.44 CSD has been found in the liver,46 the primary site of taurine biosynthesis, as well as in the retina,47 brain,48 kidney,49 mammary glands,50,51 and reproductive organs.52

### Distribution

Taurine levels are highest in electrically excitable tissues such as the central nervous system, retina, and heart; in secretory structures such as the pineal gland and the pituitary gland (including the posterior lobe or neurohypophysis); and in platelets25 and neutrophils.53

In the fetal brain, the taurine concentration is higher than that of any other amino acid,54 but the concentration in the brain decreases with advancing age, whereas glutamate levels increase over time to make it the predominant amino acid in the adult brain.54 Regardless, taurine is still the second most prevalent amino acid in the adult brain, its levels comparable to those of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).55

Taurine has also been found in variable amounts in the liver, muscle, kidney, pancreas, spleen, small intestine, and lungs,56 as well as in several other locations.45,57

Taurine is also present in the male and female reproductive organs. In male rats, taurine and taurine biosynthesis have been localized to Leydig cells of the testes, the cellular source of testosterone in males, as well as the cremaster muscle, efferent ducts, and peritubular myoid cells surrounding seminiferous tubules.58 More recently, taurine has been detected in the testes of humans59 and is also found in sperm and seminal fluid.60 Levels of taurine in spermatozoa are correlated with sperm quality, presumably by protecting against lipid peroxidation through taurine’s antioxidant effects,61,62 as well as through contribution to the spermatozoa maturation process by facilitating the capacitation, motility, and acrosomal reaction of sperm.63

In female rats, taurine has been found in uterine tissue,64 oviducts,65 uterine fluid (where it is the predominant amino acid),66 and thecal cells of developing follicles of ovaries, cells responsible for the synthesis of androgens such as testosterone and androstenedione.65 Taurine is also a major component of human breast milk67 and is important for proper neonatal nutrition.68

### Metabolism and excretion

Ninety-five percent of taurine is excreted in urine, about 70% as taurine itself, and the rest as sulfate. Most of the sulfate derived from taurine is produced by bacterial metabolism in the gut and then absorbed.69 However, taurine can also be conjugated with bile acids to act as a detergent in lipid emulsification.70 In this form, it may be subjected to the enterohepatic circulation, which gives bacteria another chance to convert it into inorganic sulfate for excretion in urine.69

## MECHANISMS AND NEUROENDOCRINE EFFECTS

As a free amino acid, taurine has widespread distribution and unique biochemical and physiologic properties and exhibits several organ-specific functions; however, indisputable evidence of a taurine-specific receptor is lacking, and its putative existence71 is controversial.72 Nonetheless, taurine is a neuromodulator with a variety of actions.

### Neurotransmission

Taurine is known to be an inhibitory neurotransmitter and neuromodulator.73 It is structurally analogous to GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.45 Accordingly, it binds to GABA receptors to serve as an agonist,74,75 causing neuronal hyperpolarization and inhibition. Taurine has an even higher affinity for glycine receptors75 where it has long been known to act as an agonist.76 GABA and glycine receptors both belong to the Cys-loop receptor superfamily,77 with conservation of subunits that allows taurine to bind each receptor, albeit at different affinities. The binding effects of taurine on GABA and glycine receptors have not been well documented quantitatively; however, it is known that taurine has a substantially lower affinity than GABA and glycine for their respective receptors.76

### Catecholamines and the sympathetic nervous system

Surprisingly little is known about the effects of taurine on norepinephrine, dopamine, and the human sympathetic nervous system.78 Humans with borderline hypertension given 6 g of taurine orally for 7 days79 experienced decreases in epinephrine secretion and blood pressure, but normotensive study participants did not experience similar results, possibly because of a better ability to regulate sympathetic tone. Mizushima et al80 showed that a longer period of taurine intake (6 g orally for 3 weeks) could elicit a decrease in norepinephrine in healthy men with normal blood pressure. Other similar studies81–83 also suggested interplay between taurine and catecholamines, but the extent is still undetermined.

### Growth hormone, prolactin, sex hormones, and cortisol

Taurine appears to have a complex relationship with several hormones, although its direct effects on hormone secretion remain obscure. Clinical studies of the acute and chronic neuroendocrine effects of taurine loading in humans are needed.

In female rats, secretion of prolactin is increased by the intraventricular injection of 5 pL of 2.0 pmol taurine over a 10-minute period.84 Ikuyama et al85 found an increase in prolactin and growth hormone secretion in adult male rats given 10 pL of 0.25 pmol and 1.0 pmol taurine intraventricularly, yet a higher dose of 4.0 pmol had no effect on either hormone. Furthermore, prolactin receptor deficiency is seen in CSD knockout mice, but the receptor is restored with taurine supplementation.86

Mantovani and DeVivo87 reported that 375 to 8,000 mg/day of taurine given orally for 4 to 6 months to epileptic patients stimulated the secretion of growth hormone. However, in another study, a single 75-mg/kg dose of oral taurine did not trigger an acute increase in levels of growth hormone or prolactin in humans.88 Energy drinks may contain up to 1,000 mg of taurine per 8-oz serving, but the effects of larger doses on growth hormone, which is banned as a supplement by major athletic organizations because of its anabolic and possible performanceenhancing effects, remain to be determined.

Taurine may have effects on human sex hormones, based on the limited observations in rodents.89–94

Although human salivary cortisol concentrations were purportedly assessed in response to 2,000 mg of oral taurine,95 the methods and reported data are not adequate to draw any conclusions.

### Energy metabolism

Mammals are unable to directly use taurine in energy production because they cannot directly reduce it.25 Instead, bacteria in the gut use it as a source of energy, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.96 However, taurine deficiency appears to impair the cellular respiratory chain, resulting in diminished production of adenosine triphosphate and diminished uptake of long-chain fatty acids by mitochondria, at least in the heart.97

Taurine is present in human mitochondria and regulates mitochondrial function. For example, taurine in mitochondria assists in conjugation of transfer RNA for leucine, lysine, glutamate, and glutamine.98 In *TauT* knockout mice, deficiency of taurine causes mitochondrial dysfunction, triggering a greater than 80% decrease in exercise capacity.99 Several studies in rodents have shown increased exercise capacity after taurine supplementation.100–102 In addition, taurine is critical for the growth of blastocytes, skeletal muscle, and myocardium; it is necessary for mitochondrial development and is also important for muscular endurance.103,104

### Antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and other functions

Taurine is a major antioxidant, scavenging reactive oxygen and protecting against oxidative stress to organs including the brain,97,105,106 where it increasingly appears to have neuroprotective effects.107,108

Cellular taurine also has anti-inflammatory actions.3 One of the proposed mechanisms is taurine inhibition of NF-kappa B, an important transcription factor for the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines.4 This function may be important in protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidative stress—helping to maintain and stabilize the structure and function of plasma membranes within the lungs,109 heart,110 brain,111 liver,112 and spermatozoa.61,62

Taurine is also conjugated to bile acids synthesized in the liver, forming bile salts70 that act as detergents to help emulsify and digest lipids in the body. In addition, taurine facilitates xenobiotic detoxification in the liver by conjugating with several drugs to aid in their excretion.25 Taurine is also implicated in calcium modulation113 and homeostasis.114 Through inhibition of several types of calcium channels, taurine has been shown to decrease calcium influx into cells, effectively serving a cytoprotective role against calcium overload.115,116

## TAURINE DEFICIENCY

### Fetal and neonatal deficiency

Though taurine is considered nonessential in adults because it can be readily synthesized endogenously, it is thought to be conditionally essential in neonatal nutrition.68 It is the second most abundant free amino acid in human breast milk117 and the most abundant free amino acid in fetal brain.118 In cases of long-term parenteral nutrition, neonates can become drastically taurine deficient119 due to suboptimal CSD activity,118 leading to retinal dysfunction.41 Taurine deficiencies can lead to functional and structural brain damage.118 Moreover, maternal taurine deficiency results in neurologic abnormalities in offspring120 and may lead to oxidative stress throughout life.121

In 1984, the FDA approved the inclusion of taurine in infant formulas based on research showing that taurine-deficient infants had impaired fat absorption, bile acid secretion, retinal function, and hepatic function.122 But still under debate are the amount and duration of taurine supplementation required by preterm and low-birth-weight infants, as several randomized controlled trials failed to show statistically significant effects on growth.123 Nonetheless, given the alleged detrimental ramifications of a lack of taurine supplementation, as well as the ethical dilemma of performing additional research trials on infants, it is presumed that infant formulas and parenteral nutrition for preterm and low-birth-weight infants will continue to contain taurine.

### Age- and disease-related deficiency

Although taurine deficiency is rare in neonates, it is perhaps inevitable with advancing age. Healthy elderly patients ages 61 to 81 have up to a 49% decrease in plasma taurine concentration compared with healthy individuals ages 27 to 57.124 While reduced renal retention125 and taurine intake126 can account for depressed taurine levels, Eppler and Daw- son127 found that tissue and circulating taurine concentrations decrease over the human life span primarily due to an age-dependent depletion of CSD activity in the liver. This effectively impairs the biosynthesis of endogenous taurine from cysteine or methionine or both, forcing a greater reliance on exogenous sources.

While specific mechanisms have not been fully elucidated, taurine deficiency has also been identified in patients suffering from diseases including but not limited to disorders of bone (osteogenesis imperfecta, osteoporosis),128 blood (acute myelogenous leukemia),129 central nervous system (schizophrenia, Friedreich ataxia-spinocerebellar de- generation),130,131 retina (retinitis pigmentosa),132 circulatory system and heart (essential hypertension, atherosclerosis),133 digestion (Gaucher disease),134 absorption (short-bowel syndrome),135 cellular proliferation (cancer),136 and membrane channels (cystic fibrosis),137 as well as in patients restricted to long-term parenteral nutrition.138 However, the apparent correlation between taurine deficiency and these conditions does not necessarily mean causation; more study is needed to elucidate a direct connection.

## SAFETY AND TOXICITY OF TAURINE SUPPLEMENTATION

An upper safe level of intake for taurine has not been established. To date, several studies have involved heavy taurine supplementation without serious adverse effects. While the largest dosage of taurine tested in humans appears to be 10 g/day for 6 months,139 a number of studies have used 1 to 6 g/day for periods of 1 week to 1 year.140 However, the assessment of potential acute, subacute, and chronic adverse effects has not been comprehensive. The Scientific Committee on Food of the European Commission141 reviewed several toxicologic studies on taurine through 2003 and were unable to expose any carcinogenic or teratogenic potential. Nevertheless, based on the available data from trials in humans and lower animals, Shao and Hathcock140 suggested an observed safe level of taurine of 3 g/ day, a conservatively smaller dose that carries a higher level of confidence. Because there is no “observed adverse effect level” for daily taurine intake,141 more research must be done to ensure safety of higher amounts of taurine administration and to define a tolerable upper limit of intake.

### Interactions with medications

To date, the literature is scarce regarding potential interactions between taurine and commonly used medications.

Although no evidence specifically links taurine with adverse effects when used concurrently with other medications, there may be a link between taurine supplementation and various cytochrome P450 systems responsible for hepatic drug metabolism. Specifically, taurine inhibits cytochrome P450 2E1, a highly conserved xenobiotic-metabolizing P450 responsible for the breakdown of more than 70 substrates, including several commonly used anesthetics, analgesics, antidepressants, antibacterials, and antiepileptics.142 Of note, taurine may contribute to the attenuation of oxidative stress in the liver in the presence of alcohol143 and acetaminophen,144 two substances frequently used and abused. Since the P450 2E1 system catalyzes comparable reactions in rodents and humans,142 rodents should plausibly serve as a model for further testing of the effects of taurine on various substrates.

## POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS

More analysis is needed to fully unlock and understand taurine’s potential value in healthcare.

Correction of late-life taurine decline in humans could be beneficial for cognitive performance, energy metabolism, sexual function, and vision, but clinical studies remain to be performed. While a decline in taurine with age may intensify the stress caused by reactive oxygen species, taurine supplementation has been shown to decrease the presence of oxidative markers127 and to serve a neuroprotective role in rodents.145,146 Taurine levels increase in the hippocampus after experimentally induced gliosis147 and are neuroprotective against glutamate excitotoxicity.148,149 Furthermore, data in Alzheimer disease, Huntington disease, and brain ischemia experimental models show that taurine inhibits neuronal death (apopto- sis).13,150,151 Taurine has even been proposed as a potential preventive treatment for Alzheimer dementia, as it stabilizes protein conformations to prevent their aggregation and subsequent dysfunction.152 Although improvement in memory and cognitive performance has been linked to taurine supplementation in old mice,145,153 similar results have not been found in adult mice whose taurine levels are within normal limits. Taurine also has transient anticonvulsant effects in some epileptic humans.154

Within the male reproductive organs, the age-related decline in taurine may or may not have implications regarding sexuality, as onlyvery limited rat data are available.89–91

In cats, taurine supplementation has been found to prevent the progressive degeneration of retinal photoreceptors seen in retinitis pigmentosa, a genetic disease that causes the loss of vision.155

While several energy drink companies have advertised that taurine plays a role in improving cognitive and physical performance, there are few human studies that examine this contention in the absence of confounding factors such as caffeine or glucose.36,37,95 Taurine supplementation in patients with heart failure has been shown to increase exercise capacity vs placebo.156 This supports the idea that in cases of taurine deficiency, such as those seen in cardiomyopathy,157 taurine supplementation could have restorative effects. However, we are not aware of any double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of taurine alone in healthy patients that measured energy parameters as clinical outcomes.

Although it remains possible that acute su- praphysiologic taurine levels achieved by supplementation could transiently trigger various psychoneuroendocrine responses in healthy people, clinical research is needed in which taurine is the sole intervention. At present, the most compelling clinical reason to prescribe or recommend taurine supplementation is taurine deficiency.

*   Copyright © 2016 The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All Rights Reserved.

## REFERENCES

1.  US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Caffeine intake by the US population. [www.fda.gov/downloads/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/Of-ficeofFoods/CFSAN/CFSANFOIAElectronicReadingRoom/UCM333191.pdf](http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/Of-ficeofFoods/CFSAN/CFSANFOIAElectronicReadingRoom/UCM333191.pdf). Accessed October 4, 2016.
    
    

2.  McLellan TM, Lieberman HR. Do energy drinks contain active components other than caffeine? Nutr Rev 2012; 70:730–744.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23206286&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

3.  Park E, Quinn MR, Wright CE, Schuller-Levis G. Taurine chloramine inhibits the synthesis of nitric oxide and the release of tumor necrosis factor in activated RAW 264.7 cells. J Leukoc Biol 1993; 54:119–124.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7689627&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1993LR78900005&link_type=ISI) 

4.  Kontny E, Szczepanska K, Kowalczewski J, et al. The mechanism of taurine chloramine inhibition of cytokine (interleukin-6, interleukin-8) production by rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43:2169–2177.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/1529-0131(200010)43:10<2169::AID-ANR4>3.0.CO;2-%23&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11037876&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000089757900004&link_type=ISI) 

5.  Barbeau A, Inoue N, Tsukada Y, Butterworth RF. The neuropharmacology of taurine. Life Sci 1975; 17:669–677.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0024-3205(75)90520-2&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1107738&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1975AU60500002&link_type=ISI) 

6.  Kramer JH, Chovan JP, Schaffer SW. Effect of taurine on calcium paradox and ischemic heart failure. Am J Physiol 1981; 240:H238–H246.
    
    

7.  Azuma J, Sawamura A, Awata N, et al. Therapeutic effect of taurine in congestive heart failure: a double-blind crossover trial. Clin Cardiol 1985; 8:276–282.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/clc.4960080507&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3888464&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1985AGP8700005&link_type=ISI) 

8.  Darling PB, Lepage G, Leroy C, Masson P, Roy CC. Effect of taurine supplements on fat absorption in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Res 1985; 19:578–582.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1203/00006450-198506000-00015&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=4011338&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1985AHV3600015&link_type=ISI) 

9.  Franconi F, Di Leo MA, Bennardini F, Ghirlanda G. Is taurine beneficial in reducing risk factors for diabetes mellitus? Neurochem Res 2004; 29:143–150.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1023/B:NERE.0000010443.05899.2f&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=14992273&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

10. Malcangio M, Bartolini A, Ghelardini C, et al. Effect of ICV taurine on the impairment of learning, convulsions and death caused by hypoxia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1989; 98:316–320.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/BF00451681&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2501810&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

11. Rivas-Arancibia S, Dorado-Martínez C, Borgonio-Pérez G, et al. Effects of taurine on ozone-induced memory deficits and lipid peroxidation levels in brains of young, mature, and old rats. Environ Res 2000; 82:7–17.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10677142&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

12. Vohra BP, Hui X. Improvement of impaired memory in mice by taurine. Neural Plast 2000; 7:245–259.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11486485&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

13. Tadros MG, Khalifa AE, Abdel-Naim AB, Arafa HM. Neuroprotective effect of taurine in 3-nitropropionic acid-induced experimental animal model of Huntington’s disease phenotype. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2005; 82:574–582.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=16337998&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

14. Zhu DM, Wang M, She JQ, Yu K, Ruan DY. Protection by a taurine supplemented diet from lead-induced deficits of long-term poten- tiation/depotentiation in dentate gyrus of rats in vivo. Neuroscience 2005; 134:215–224.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.03.011&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15953688&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000230808200021&link_type=ISI) 

15. Chepkova AN, Sergeeva OA, Haas HL. Taurine rescues hippocampal long-term potentiation from ammonia-induced impairment. Neuro- biol Dis 2006; 23:512–521.
    
    

16. Wang GH, Jiang ZL, Fan XJ, Zhang L, Li X, Ke KF. Neuroprotective effect of taurine against focal cerebral ischemia in rats possibly mediated by activation of both GABAA and glycine receptors. Neuropharmacology 2007; 52:1199–1209.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.10.022&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=17386936&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000246629000001&link_type=ISI) 

17. Caltagirone C, Ferrannini L, Marchionni N, Nappi G, Scapagnini G, Trabucchi M. The potential protective effect of tramiprosate (homotaurine) against Alzheimer’s disease: a review. Aging Clin Exp Res 2012; 24:580–587.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=22961121&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

18. Jonas DE, Amick HR, Feltner C, et al. Pharmacotherapy for adults with alcohol use disorders in outpatient settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2014; 311:1889–1900.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1001/jama.2014.3628&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=24825644&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000335798100021&link_type=ISI) 

19. Sorkin BC, Camp KM, Haggans CJ, et al. Executive summary of NIH workshop on the use and biology of energy drinks: current knowledge and critical gaps. Nutr Rev 2014; 72(suppl 1):1–8.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1111/nure.12083&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=24330083&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Energy drink consumption and its association with sleep problems among US service members on a combat deployment—Afghanistan, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 61:895–898.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23134972&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

21. Bailey RL, Saldanha LG, Dwyer JT. Estimating caffeine intake from energy drinks and dietary supplements in the United States. Nutr Rev 2014; 72(suppl 1):9–13.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1111/nure.12138&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=25293539&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

22. Stephens MB, Attipoe S, Jones D, Ledford CJ, Deuster PA. Energy drink and energy shot use in the military. Nutr Rev 2014; 72(suppl 1):72–77.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1111/nure.12139&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=25293546&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

23. Triebel S, Sproll C, Reusch H, Godelmann R, Lachenmeier DW. Rapid analysis of taurine in energy drinks using amino acid analyzer and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy as basis for toxicological evaluation. Amino Acids 2007; 33:451–457.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=17051421&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

24. Beverage Industry. 2013 state of the industry: energy drinks & shots. [www.bevindustry.com/articles/86552-state-of-the-industry-energy-drinks-shots](http://www.bevindustry.com/articles/86552-state-of-the-industry-energy-drinks-shots). Accessed October 4, 2016.
    
    

25. Huxtable RJ. Physiological actions of taurine. Physiol Rev 1992; 72:101–163.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/physrev.1992.72.1.101&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1731369&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1992HA48600004&link_type=ISI) 

26. Laidlaw SA, Grosvenor M, Kopple JD. The taurine content of common foodstuffs. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1990; 14:183–188.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1177/0148607190014002183&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2352336&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1990CV62600017&link_type=ISI) 

27. Manzi P, Pizzoferrato L. Taurine in milk and yoghurt marketed in Italy. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2013; 64:112–116.
    
    

28. Dragnes BT, Larsen R, Ernstsen MH, Mæhre H, Elvevoll EO. Impact of processing on the taurine content in processed seafood and their corresponding unprocessed raw materials. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2009; 60:143–152.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=18608559&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

29. Laidlaw SA, Shultz TD, Cecchino JT, Kopple JD. Plasma and urine taurine levels in vegans. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 47:660–663.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6NDoiYWpjbiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo4OiI0Ny80LzY2MCI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

30. Rana SK, Sanders TA. Taurine concentrations in the diet, plasma, urine and breast milk of vegans compared with omnivores. Br J Nutr 1986; 56:17–27.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1079/BJN19860082&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3676193&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1986D696800003&link_type=ISI) 

31. Alford C, Cox H, Wescott R. The effects of Red Bull energy drink on human performance and mood. Amino Acids 2001; 21:139–150.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s007260170021&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11665810&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000171223000004&link_type=ISI) 

32. Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Ross R, Shanklin M, Kang J, Faigenbaum AD. Effect of a pre-exercise energy supplement on the acute hormonal response to resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22:874–882.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1519/JSC.0b013e31816d5db6&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=18438227&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

33. Ivy JL, Kammer L, Ding Z, et al. Improved cycling time-trial performance after ingestion of a caffeine energy drink. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2009; 19:61–78.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=19403954&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

34. Gonzalez AM, Walsh AL, Ratamess NA, Kang J, Hoffman JR. Effect of a pre-workout energy supplement on acute multi-joint resistance exercise. J Sports Sci Med 2011; 10:261–266.
    
    

35. Yeh TS, Chan KH, Hsu MC, Liu JF. Supplementation with soybean peptides, taurine, pueraria isoflavone, and ginseng saponin complex improves endurance exercise capacity in humans. J Med Food 2011; 14:219–225.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=21332400&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

36. Rutherford JA, Spriet LL, Stellingwerff T. The effect of acute taurine ingestion on endurance performance and metabolism in well- trained cyclists. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2010; 20:322–329.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20739720&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

37. Zhang M, Izumi I, Kagamimori S, et al. Role of taurine supplementation to prevent exercise-induced oxidative stress in healthy young men. Amino Acids 2004; 26:203–207.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00726-003-0002-3&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15042451&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000220385300015&link_type=ISI) 

38. Kammerer M, Jaramillo JA, García A, Calderón JC, Valbuena LH. Effects of energy drink major bioactive compounds on the performance of young adults in fitness and cognitive tests: a randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014; 11:44.
    
    

39. Kermack WO, Slater RH. The preparation of taurine in considerable quantity. Biochem J 1927; 21:1065–1067.
    
    [FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6MzoiUERGIjtzOjExOiJqb3VybmFsQ29kZSI7czoxMDoicHBiaW9jaGVtaiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo5OiIyMS81LzEwNjUiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyMToiL2Njam9tLzgzLzEyLzg5NS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=) 

40. Huxtable RJ, Lippincott SE. Diet and biosynthesis as sources of taurine in the mouse. J Nutr 1982; 112:1003–1010.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6OToibnV0cml0aW9uIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjEwOiIxMTIvNS8xMDAzIjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

41. Ohkuma S, Tamura J, Kuriyama K. Roles of endogenous and exogenous taurine and glycine in the formation of conjugated bile acids: analyses using freshly isolated and primary cultured rat hepatocytes. Jpn J Pharmacol 1984; 35:347–358.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6503037&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

42. Chapman GE, Greenwood CE. Taurine in nutrition and brain development. Nutrition Research 1988; 8:955–968.
    
    

43. Andrews S, Schmidt CLA. Titration curves of taurine and cysteic acid. J Biol Chem 1927; 73:651–654.
    
    [FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6MzoiUERGIjtzOjExOiJqb3VybmFsQ29kZSI7czozOiJqYmMiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6ODoiNzMvMi82NTEiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyMToiL2Njam9tLzgzLzEyLzg5NS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=) 

44. Huxtable RJ. Taurine in the central nervous system and the mammalian actions of taurine. Prog Neurobiol 1989; 32:471–533.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0301-0082(89)90019-1&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2664881&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1989U931100002&link_type=ISI) 

45. Jacobsen JG, Smith LH. Biochemistry and physiology of taurine and taurine derivatives. Physiol Rev 1968; 48:424–511.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/physrev.1968.48.2.424&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=4297098&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1968B012600003&link_type=ISI) 

46. Hope DB. Pyridoxal phosphate as the coenzyme of the mammalian decarboxylase for L-cysteine sulphinic and L-cysteic acids. Biochem J 1955; 59:497–500.
    
    [FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6MzoiUERGIjtzOjExOiJqb3VybmFsQ29kZSI7czoxMDoicHBiaW9jaGVtaiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo4OiI1OS8zLzQ5NyI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

47. Pasantes-Morales H, Lopez-Colome AM, Salceda R, Mandel P. Cysteine sulphinate decarboxylase in chick and rat retina during development. J Neurochem 1976; 27:1103–1106.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=12170595&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

48. Oertel WH, Schmechel DE, Weise VK, et al. Comparison of cysteine sulphinic acid decarboxylase isoenzymes and glutamic acid decarboxylase in rat liver and brain. Neuroscience 1981; 6:2701–2714.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7322359&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

49. Reymond I, Bitoun M, Levillain O, Tappaz M. Regional expression and histological localization of cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase mRNA in the rat kidney. J Histochem Cytochem 2000; 48:1461–1468.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1177/002215540004801103&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11036089&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000165100300003&link_type=ISI) 

50. Hu JM, Ikemura R, Chang KT, Suzuki M, Nishihara M, Takahashi M. Expression of cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase mRNA in rat mammary gland. J Vet Med Sci 2000; 62:829–834.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1292/jvms.62.829&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10993179&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

51. Ueki I, Stipanuk MH. Enzymes of the taurine biosynthetic pathway are expressed in rat mammary gland. J Nutr 2007; 137:1887–1894.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6OToibnV0cml0aW9uIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjEwOiIxMzcvOC8xODg3IjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

52. Li JH, Ling YQ, Fan JJ, Zhang XP, Cui S. Expression of cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase (CSD) in male reproductive organs of mice. Histochem Cell Biol 2006; 125:607–613.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00418-005-0095-8&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=16252094&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

53. Green TR, Fellman JH, Eicher AL, Pratt KL. Antioxidant role and subcellular location of hypotaurine and taurine in human neutrophils. Biochim Biophys Acta 1991; 1073:91–97.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1846756&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

54. Lefauconnier JM, Portemer C, Chatagner F. Free amino acids and related substances in human glial tumours and in fetal brain: comparison with normal adult brain. Brain Res 1976; 117:105–113.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0006-8993(76)90559-X&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=186155&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

55. Sturman JA, Rassin DK, Gaull GE. Taurine in development. Life Sci 1977; 21:1–22.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=329037&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

56. Sturman JA. Taurine pool sizes in the rat: effects of vitamin B-6 deficiency and high taurine diet. J Nutr 1973; 103:1566–1580.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6OToibnV0cml0aW9uIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjExOiIxMDMvMTEvMTU2NiI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

57. Terauchi A, Nakazaw A, Johkura K, Yan L, Usuda N. Immunohistochemical localization of taurine in various tissues of the mouse. Amino Acids 1998; 15:151–160.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/BF01345288&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=9871495&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000075862300015&link_type=ISI) 

58. Lobo MV, Alonso FJ, del Río RM. Immunohistochemical localization of taurine in the male reproductive organs of the rat. J Histochem Cytochem 2000; 48:313–320.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1177/002215540004800301&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10681385&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000085636700001&link_type=ISI) 

59. Aaronson DS, Iman R, Walsh TJ, Kurhanewicz J, Turek PJ. A novel application of 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy: non-invasive identification of spermatogenesis in men with non-obstructive azoospermia. Hum Reprod 2010; 25:847–852.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1093/humrep/dep475&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20124393&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000275818200006&link_type=ISI) 

60. Holmes RP, Goodman HO, Shihabi ZK, Jarow JP. The taurine and hypotaurine content of human semen. J Androl 1992; 13:289–292.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1601750&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1992HX26900015&link_type=ISI) 

61. Alvarez JG, Storey BT. Taurine, hypotaurine, epinephrine and albumin inhibit lipid peroxidation in rabbit spermatozoa and protect against loss of motility. Biol Reprod 1983; 29:548–555.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1095/biolreprod29.3.548&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6626644&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1983RN96600003&link_type=ISI) 

62. Das J, Ghosh J, Manna P, Sinha M, Sil PC. Taurine protects rat testes against NaAsO(2)-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis via mitochondrial dependent and independent pathways. Toxicol Lett 2009; 187:201–210.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.03.001&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=19429265&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

63. Mrsny RJ, Meizel S. Inhibition of hamster sperm Na+, K+-ATPase activity by taurine and hypotaurine. Life Sci 1985; 36:271–275.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0024-3205(85)90069-4&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2981386&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1985TX27100011&link_type=ISI) 

64. Phoenix J, Wray S. Changes in human and rat uterine phosphoetha- nolamine and taurine with pregnancy and parturition. Exp Physiol 1994; 79:601–604.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7946290&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1994PA57900014&link_type=ISI) 

65. Lobo MV, Alonso FJ, Latorre A, del Río RM. Immunohistochemical localization of taurine in the rat ovary, oviduct, and uterus. J Histochem Cytochem 2001; 49:1133–1142.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1177/002215540104900907&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11511682&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000170718600007&link_type=ISI) 

66. Casslén BG. Free amino acids in human uterine fluid. Possible role of high taurine concentration. J Reprod Med 1987; 32:181–184.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3572897&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1987G652400004&link_type=ISI) 

67. Pamblanco M, Portolés M, Paredes C, Ten A, Comín J. Free amino acids in preterm and term milk from mothers delivering appropriate- or small-for-gestational-age infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 50:778–781.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6NDoiYWpjbiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo4OiI1MC80Lzc3OCI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

68. Rigo J, Senterre J. Is taurine essential for the neonates? Biol Neonate 1977; 32:73–76.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1159/000240997&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=409439&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1977DX86500009&link_type=ISI) 

69. Sturman JA, Hepner GW, Hofmann AF, Thomas PJ. Metabolism of [35S]taurine in man. J Nutr 1975; 105:1206–1214.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6OToibnV0cml0aW9uIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjEwOiIxMDUvOS8xMjA2IjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

70. Bremer J. Species differences in the conjugation of free bile acids with taurine and glycine. Biochem J 1956; 63:507–513.
    
    [FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6MzoiUERGIjtzOjExOiJqb3VybmFsQ29kZSI7czoxMDoicHBiaW9jaGVtaiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo4OiI2My8zLzUwNyI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

71. Wu JY, Tang XW, Tsai WH. Taurine receptor: kinetic analysis and pharmacological studies. Adv Exp Med Biol 1992; 315:263–268.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1324594&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

72. Ripps H, Shen W. Review: taurine: a “very essential” amino acid. Mol Vis 2012; 18:2673–2686.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23170060&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

73. Haas HL, Hösli L. The depression of brain stem neurones by taurine and its interaction with strychnine and bicuculline. Brain Res 1973; 52:399–402.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0006-8993(73)90680-X&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=4700718&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

74. Bureau MH, Olsen RW. Taurine acts on a subclass of GABAA receptors in mammalian brain in vitro. Eur J Pharmacol 1991; 207:9–16.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/S0922-4106(05)80031-8&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1655497&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1991FR94800002&link_type=ISI) 

75. Bhattarai JP, Park SJ, Chun SW, Cho DH, Han SK. Activation of synaptic and extrasynaptic glycine receptors by taurine in preoptic hypothalamic neurons. Neurosci Lett 2015; 608:51–56.
    
    

76. Horikoshi T, Asanuma A, Yanagisawa K, Anzai K, Goto S. Taurine and beta-alanine act on both GABA and glycine receptors in Xeno- pus oocyte injected with mouse brain messenger RNA. Brain Res 1988; 464:97–105.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2464409&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

77. Miller PS, Smart TG. Binding, activation and modulation of Cys-loop receptors. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010; 31:161–174.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.tips.2009.12.005&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20096941&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000276877600005&link_type=ISI) 

78. Fujita T, Sato Y. Hypotensive effect of taurine. Possible involvement of the sympathetic nervous system and endogenous opiates. J Clin Invest 1988; 82:993–997.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1172/JCI113709&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2971083&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1988Q160600037&link_type=ISI) 

79. Fujita T, Ando K, Noda H, Ito Y, Sato Y. Effects of increased adrenomedullary activity and taurine in young patients with borderline hypertension. Circulation 1987; 75:525–532.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6MTQ6ImNpcmN1bGF0aW9uYWhhIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjg6Ijc1LzMvNTI1IjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

80. Mizushima S, Nara Y, Sawamura M, Yamori Y. Effects of oral taurine supplementation on lipids and sympathetic nerve tone. Adv Exp Med Biol 1996; 403:615–622.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/978-1-4899-0182-8_68&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=8915402&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1996BG83S00068&link_type=ISI) 

81. Fujita T, Sato Y. The antihypertensive effect of taurine in DOCA-salt rats. J Hypertens Suppl 1984; 2:S563–S565.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6152784&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

82. Fujita T, Sato Y, Ando K. Changes in cardiac and hypothalamic noradrenergic activity with taurine in DOCA-salt rats. Am J Physiol 1986; 251:H926–H933.
    
    

83. Sato Y, Ando K, Fujita T. Role of sympathetic nervous system in hypotensive action of taurine in DOCA-salt rats. Hypertension 1987; 9:81–87.
    
    

84. Scheibel J, Elsasser T, Ondo JG. A neuromodulatory role for taurine in controlling prolactin secretion in female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1981; 6:139–144.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7323249&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

85. Ikuyama S, Okajima T, Kato K, Ibayashi H. Effect of taurine on growth hormone and prolactin secretion in rats: possible interaction with opioid peptidergic system. Life Sci 1988; 43:807–812.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0024-3205(88)90506-1&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3412107&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

86. Park E, Park SY, Dobkin C, Schuller-Levis G. Development of a novel cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase knockout mouse: dietary taurine reduces neonatal mortality. J Amino Acids 2014; 2014:346809.
    
    

87. Mantovani J, DeVivo DC. Effects of taurine on seizures and growth hormone release in epileptic patients. Arch Neurol 1979; 36:672674.
    
    

88. Carlson HE, Miglietta JT, Roginsky MS, Stegink LD. Stimulation of pituitary hormone secretion by neurotransmitter amino acids in humans. Metabolism 1989; 38:1179–1182.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0026-0495(89)90156-X&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=2574405&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1989CD61800007&link_type=ISI) 

89. Yang J, Wu G, Feng Y, Lv Q, Lin S, Hu J. Effects of taurine on male reproduction in rats of different ages. J Biomed Sci 2010; 17(suppl 1):S9.
    
    

90. Yang J, Lin S, Feng Y, Wu G, Hu J. Taurine enhances the sexual response and mating ability in aged male rats. Adv Exp Med Biol 2013; 776:347–355.
    
    

91. Yang J, Zong X, Wu G, Lin S, Feng Y, Hu J. Taurine increases testicular function in aged rats by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis. Amino Acids 2015; 47:1549–1558.
    
    

92. Scheibel J, Elsasser T, Ondo JG. Stimulation of LH and FSH secretion following intraventricular injection of cysteic acid but not taurine. Brain Res 1980; 201:99–106.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6774799&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

93. Price MT, Olney JW, Mitchell MV, Fuller T, Cicero TJ. Luteinizing hormone releasing action of N-methyl aspartate is blocked by GABA or taurine but not by dopamine antagonists. Brain Res 1978; 158:461–465.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0006-8993(78)90690-X&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=709376&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

94. Ma Q, Zhao J, Cao W, Liu J, Cui S. Estradiol decreases taurine level by reducing cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase via the estrogen receptor-a in female mice liver. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2015; 308:G277–G286.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/ajpgi.00107.2014&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=25394658&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

95. Giles GE, Mahoney CR, Brunyé TT, Gardony AL, Taylor HA, Kanarek RB. Differential cognitive effects of energy drink ingredients: caffeine, taurine, and glucose. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 102:569–577.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.pbb.2012.07.004&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=22819803&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

96. Giehl TJ, Qoronfleh MW, Wilkinson BJ. Transport, nutritional and metabolic studies of taurine in staphylococci. J Gen Microbiol 1987; 133:849–856.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1099/00221287-133-4-849&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3655734&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

97. Schaffer SW, Shimada-Takaura K, Jong CJ, Ito T, Takahashi K. Impaired energy metabolism of the taurine-deficient heart. Amino Acids 2015 Oct 16. Epub ahead of print.
    
    

98. Schaffer SW, Jong CJ, Ito T, Azuma J. Role of taurine in the pathologies of MELAS and MERRF. Amino Acids 2014; 46:47–56.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00726-012-1414-8&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23179085&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000330032700005&link_type=ISI) 

99. Warskulat U, Heller-Stilb B, Oermann E, et al. Phenotype of the taurine transporter knockout mouse. Methods Enzymol 2007; 428:439–458.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/S0076-6879(07)28025-5&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=17875433&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000250200300025&link_type=ISI) 

100.Yatabe Y, Miyakawa S, Miyazaki T, Matsuzaki Y, Ochiai N. Effects of taurine administration in rat skeletal muscles on exercise. J Orthop Sci 2003; 8:415–419.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s10776-002-0636-1&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=12768487&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

101.Miyazaki T, Matsuzaki Y, Ikegami T, et al. Optimal and effective oral dose of taurine to prolong exercise performance in rat. Amino Acids 2004; 27:291–298.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00726-004-0133-1&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15503230&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000225604600008&link_type=ISI) 

102.Goodman CA, Horvath D, Stathis C, et al. Taurine supplementation increases skeletal muscle force production and protects muscle function during and after high-frequency in vitro stimulation. J Appl Physiol(1985) 2009; 107:144–154.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/japplphysiol.00040.2009&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=19423840&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

103.Van Winkle LJ, Patel M, Wasserlauf HG, Dickinson HR, Campione AL. Osmotic regulation of taurine transport via system beta and novel processes in mouse preimplantation conceptuses. Biochim Biophys Acta 1994; 1191:244–255.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=8172910&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

104.Ito T, Kimura Y, Uozumi Y, et al. Taurine depletion caused by knocking out the taurine transporter gene leads to cardiomyopathy with cardiac atrophy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2008; 44:927–937.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.yjmcc.2008.03.001&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=18407290&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000256731400009&link_type=ISI) 

105.Aydin AF, Çoban J, Dogan-Ekici I, Betül-Kalaz E, Dogru-Abbasoglu S, Uysal M. Carnosine and taurine treatments diminished brain oxidative stress and apoptosis in D-galactose aging model. Metab Brain Dis 2016; 31:337–345.
    
    

106.Nagai K, Fukuno S, Oda A, Konishi H. Protective effects of taurine on doxorubicin-induced acute hepatotoxicity through suppression of oxidative stress and apoptotic responses. Anticancer Drugs 2016; 27:17–23.
    
    

107.Caletti G, Almeida FB, Agnes G, Nin MS, Barros HM, Gomez R. Antidepressant dose of taurine increases mRNA expression of GABAA receptor a2 subunit and BDNF in the hippocampus of diabetic rats. Behav Brain Res 2015; 283:11–55.
    
    

108.Gu Y, Zhao Y, Qian K, Sun M. Taurine attenuates hippocampal and corpus callosum damage, and enhances neurological recovery after closed head injury in rats. Neuroscience 2015; 291:331–340.
    
    

109.Banks MA, Porter DW, Pailes WH, Schwegler-Berry D, Martin WG, Castranova V. Taurine content of isolated rat alveolar type I cells. Comp Biochem Physiol B 1991; 100:795–799.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=1685371&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

110.Raschke P, Massoudy P, Becker BF. Taurine protects the heart from neutrophil-induced reperfusion injury. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 19:461–471.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/0891-5849(95)00044-X&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7590395&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1995RN64800007&link_type=ISI) 

111.Pushpakiran G, Mahalakshmi K, Anuradha CV. Taurine restores ethanol-induced depletion of antioxidants and attenuates oxidative stress in rat tissues. Amino Acids 2004; 27:91–96.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00726-004-0066-8&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15309576&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000223266300011&link_type=ISI) 

112.Refik Mas M, Comert B, Oncu K, et al. The effect of taurine treatment on oxidative stress in experimental liver fibrosis. Hepatol Res 2004; 28:207–215.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.hepres.2003.11.012&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15040961&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000220514900006&link_type=ISI) 

113.Sebring LA, Huxtable RJ. Taurine modulation of calcium binding to cardiac sarcolemma. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1985; 232:445–451.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6NDoianBldCI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo5OiIyMzIvMi80NDUiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyMToiL2Njam9tLzgzLzEyLzg5NS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=) 

114.Schaffer SW, Kramer J, Chovan JP. Regulation of calcium homeostasis in the heart by taurine. Fed Proc 1980; 39:2691–2694.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7398899&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1980JZ12300019&link_type=ISI) 

115.Foos TM, Wu JY. The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis. Neuro- chem Res 2002; 27:21–26.
    
    

116.Ito T, Schaffer S, Azuma J. The effect of taurine on chronic heart failure: actions of taurine against catecholamine and angiotensin II. Amino Acids 2014; 46:111–119.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s00726-013-1507-z&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23722414&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000330032700011&link_type=ISI) 

117.Gaull GE. Taurine in pediatric nutrition: review and update. Pediatrics 1989; 83:433–442.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6MTA6InBlZGlhdHJpY3MiO3M6NToicmVzaWQiO3M6ODoiODMvMy80MzMiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyMToiL2Njam9tLzgzLzEyLzg5NS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=) 

118.Sturman JA, Rassin DK, Gaull GE. Taurine in developing rat brain: transfer of [35S] taurine to pups via the milk. Pediatr Res 1977; 11:28–33.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=831216&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1977CS59500007&link_type=ISI) 

119.Geggel HS, Ament ME, Heckenlively JR, Martin DA, Kopple JD. Nutritional requirement for taurine in patients receiving long-term parenteral nutrition. N Engl J Med 1985; 312:142–146.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1056/NEJM198501173120302&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3917547&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1985TZ64400002&link_type=ISI) 

120.Sturman JA, Gargano AD, Messing JM, Imaki H. Feline maternal taurine deficiency: effect on mother and offspring. J Nutr 1986; 116:655–667.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6OToibnV0cml0aW9uIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjk6IjExNi80LzY1NSI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIxOiIvY2Nqb20vODMvMTIvODk1LmF0b20iO31zOjg6ImZyYWdtZW50IjtzOjA6IiI7fQ==) 

121.Lerdweeraphon W, Wyss JM, Boonmars T, Roysommuti S. Perinatal taurine exposure affects adult oxidative stress. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2013; 305:R95–R97.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/ajpregu.00142.2013&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23616107&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

122.Chesney RW, Helms RA, Christensen M, Budreau AM, Han X, Sturman JA. The role of taurine in infant nutrition. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 442:463–476.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/978-1-4899-0117-0_56&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=9635063&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000074919100056&link_type=ISI) 

123.Verner A, Craig S, McGuire W. Effect of taurine supplementation on growth and development in preterm or low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4:CD006072.
    
    

124.Jeevanandam M, Young DH, Ramias L, Schiller WR. Effect of major trauma on plasma free amino acid concentrations in geriatric patients. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 51:1040–1045.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6NDoiYWpjbiI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo5OiI1MS82LzEwNDAiO3M6NDoiYXRvbSI7czoyMToiL2Njam9tLzgzLzEyLzg5NS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=) 

125.Dawson R Jr., Eppler B, Patterson TA, Shih D, Liu S. The effects of taurine in a rodent model of aging. Adv Exp Med Biol 1996; 403:37–50.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=8915339&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

126.Han X, Budreau AM, Chesney RW. Molecular cloning and functional expression of an LLC-PK1 cell taurine transporter that is adaptively regulated by taurine. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 442:261–268.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=9635040&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

127.Eppler B, Dawson R Jr. Dietary taurine manipulations in aged male Fischer 344 rat tissue: taurine concentration, taurine biosynthesis, and oxidative markers. Biochem Pharmacol 2001; 62:29–39.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/S0006-2952(01)00647-5&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11377394&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000169096800004&link_type=ISI) 

128.D’Eufemia P, Finocchiaro R, Celli M, et al. Taurine deficiency in thalassemia major-induced osteoporosis treated with neridronate. Biomed Pharmacother 2010; 64:271–274.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20359847&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

129.Muscaritoli M, Conversano L, Petti MC, et al. Plasma amino acid concentrations in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia. Nutrition 1999; 15:195–199.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10198913&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

130.Do KQ, Lauer CJ, Schreiber W, et al. Gamma-glutamylglutamine and taurine concentrations are decreased in the cerebrospinal fluid of drug-naive patients with schizophrenic disorders. J Neurochem 1995; 65:2652–2662.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.65062652.x&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7595563&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=A1995TF55400033&link_type=ISI) 

131.Lemieux B, Giguère R, Shapcott D. Studies on the role of taurine in Friedreich’s ataxia. Can J Neurol Sci 1984; 11(suppl 4):610–615.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6509411&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

132.Airaksinen EM, Oja SS, Marnela KM, Sihvola P. Taurine and other amino acids of platelets and plasma in retinitis pigmentosa. Ann Clin Res 1980; 12:52–54.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=7447364&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

133.Kohashi N, Katori R. Decrease of urinary taurine in essential hypertension. Jpn Heart J 1983; 24:91–102.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=6854956&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

134.vom Dahl S, Mönnighoff I, Häussinger D. Decrease of plasma taurine in Gaucher disease and its sustained correction during enzyme replacement therapy. Amino Acids 2000; 19:585–592.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1007/s007260070008&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=11140361&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000165716800008&link_type=ISI) 

135.Schneider SM, Joly F, Gehrardt MF, et al. Taurine status and response to intravenous taurine supplementation in adults with short-bowel syndrome undergoing long-term parenteral nutrition: a pilot study. Br J Nutr 2006; 96:365–370.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1079/BJN20061826&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=16923232&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000239971500020&link_type=ISI) 

136.Gray GE, Landel AM, Meguid MM. Taurine-supplemented total parenteral nutrition and taurine status of malnourished cancer patients. Nutrition 1994; 10:11–15.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=8199416&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

137.Thompson GN. Assessment of taurine deficiency in cystic fibrosis. Clin Chim Acta 1988; 171:233–237.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=3370822&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

138.Cho KH, Kim ES, Chen JD. Taurine intake and excretion in patients undergoing long term enteral nutrition. Adv Exp Med Biol 2000; 483:605v612.
    
    

139.Durelli L, Mutani R, Fassio F. The treatment of myotonia: evaluation of chronic oral taurine therapy. Neurology 1983; 33:599–603.
    
    

140.Shao A, Hathcock JN. Risk assessment for the amino acids taurine, L- glutamine and L-arginine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 50:376399.
    
    

141.European CommissionScientific Committee on Food. Opinion on additional information on energy drinks. [http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out169\_en.pdf](http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out169_en.pdf). Accessed October 4, 2016.
    
    

142.Tanaka E, Terada M, Misawa S. Cytochrome P450 2E1: its clinical and toxicological role. J Clin Pharm Ther 2000; 25:165–175.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1046/j.1365-2710.2000.00282.x&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10886461&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000087913000003&link_type=ISI) 

143.Kerai MD, Waterfield CJ, Kenyon SH, Asker DS, Timbrell JA. Reversal of ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and lipid peroxidation by taurine: a study in rats. Alcohol Alcohol 1999; 34:529–541.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1093/alcalc/34.4.529&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10456581&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000082057900007&link_type=ISI) 

144.Das J, Ghosh J, Manna P, Sil PC. Acetaminophen induced acute liver failure via oxidative stress and JNK activation: protective role of taurine by the suppression of cytochrome P450 2E1. Free Radic Res 2010; 44:340–355.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.3109/10715760903513017&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20166895&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

145.El Idrissi A, Shen CH, L’Amoreaux WJ. Neuroprotective role of taurine during aging. Amino Acids 2013; 45:735–750.
    
    

146.Gharibani P, Modi J, Menzie J, et al. Comparison between single and combined post-treatment with S-methyl-N, N-diethylthiolcarbamate sulfoxide and taurine following transient focal cerebral ischemia in rat brain. Neuroscience 2015; 300:460–473.
    
    

147.Junyent F, De Lemos L, Utrera J, et al. Content and traffic of taurine in hippocampal reactive astrocytes. Hippocampus 2011; 21:185–197.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20082296&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

148.El Idrissi A, Trenkner E. Growth factors and taurine protect against excitotoxicity by stabilizing calcium homeostasis and energy metabolism. J Neurosci 1999; 19:9459–9468.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6Njoiam5ldXJvIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjEwOiIxOS8yMS85NDU5IjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

149.Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Jin H, Sha D, Wu JY. Mode of action of taurine as a neuroprotector. Brain Res 2005; 1038:123–131.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.brainres.2005.01.058&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15757628&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

150.Paula-Lima AC, De Felice FG, Brito-Moreira J, Ferreira ST. Activation of GABA(A) receptors by taurine and muscimol blocks the neurotoxicity of beta-amyloid in rat hippocampal and cortical neurons. Neuropharmacology 2005; 49:1140–1148.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.06.015&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=16150468&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

151.Takatani T, Takahashi K, Uozumi Y, et al. Taurine inhibits apoptosis by preventing formation of the Apaf-1/caspase-9 apoptosome. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2004; 287:C949–C953.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1152/ajpcell.00042.2004&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=15253891&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000223762000014&link_type=ISI) 

152.Atamna H, Kumar R. Protective role of methylene blue in Alzheimer’s disease via mitochondria and cytochrome c oxidase. J Alzheimers Dis 2010; 20(suppl 2):S439–S452.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=20463399&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000280479600015&link_type=ISI) 

153.El Idrissi A. Taurine improves learning and retention in aged mice. Neurosci Lett 2008; 436:19–22.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.neulet.2008.02.070&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=18375059&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

154.Oja SS, Saransaari P. Taurine and epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2013; 104:187–194.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2013.01.010&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=23410665&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 

155.Berson EL, Hayes KC, Rabin AR, Schmidt SY, Watson G. Retinal degeneration in cats fed casein. II. Supplementation with methionine, cysteine, or taurine. Invest Ophthalmol 1976; 15:52–58.
    
    [Abstract/FREE Full Text](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/ijlink/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6NDoiaW92cyI7czo1OiJyZXNpZCI7czo3OiIxNS8xLzUyIjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjE6Ii9jY2pvbS84My8xMi84OTUuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9) 

156.Beyranvand MR, Khalafi MK, Roshan VD, Choobineh S, Parsa SA, Piranfar MA. Effect of taurine supplementation on exercise capacity of patients with heart failure. J Cardiol 2011; 57:333–337.
    
    [CrossRef](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1016/j.jjcc.2011.01.007&link_type=DOI) 
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=21334852&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom) 
    
    [Web of Science](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=000290702300015&link_type=ISI) 

157.Eby G, Halcomb WW. Elimination of cardiac arrhythmias using oral taurine with l-arginine with case histories: hypothesis for nitric oxide stabilization of the sinus node. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67:1200–1204.
    
    [PubMed](http://www.ccjm.org/lookup/external-ref?access_num=16797868&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fccjom%2F83%2F12%2F895.atom)