Risk factors associated with vascular calcification
| Traditional risk factors |
| Hypertension |
| Diabetes mellitus |
| Old age |
| Smoking |
| Dyslipidemia |
| Family history of premature coronary artery disease |
| Male sex |
| Increased levels of C-reactive protein or other |
| inflammatory markers |
| Kidney disease-related risk factors |
| Longer hemodialysis duration |
| Persistent hyperphosphatemia |
| Increased calcium-phosphate product |
| Calcium-containing phosphate binders |
| Secondary hyperparathyroidism |
| Adynamic bone disease |
| Vitamin D deficiency and excessive vitamin D administration |
| High dialysate calcium |
| Hypomagnesemia |
| Low fetuin-A |
| Low albumin |