Abstract
Acquired myasthenia gravis (MG) is a chronic autoimmune disorder of the neuromuscular junction, characterized clinically by muscle weakness and abnormal fatigability on exertion. Current guidelines and recommendations for MG treatment are based largely on clinical experience, retrospective analyses and expert consensus. Available therapies include oral acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors for symptomatic treatment, and short- and long-term disease-modifying treatments. This review focuses on treatment of MG, mainly on the use of the AChE inhibitor pyridostigmine. Despite a lack of data from well controlled clinical trials to support their use, AChE inhibitors, of which pyridostigmine is the most commonly used, are recommended as first-line therapy for MG. Pyridostigmine has been used as a treatment for MG for over 50 years and is generally considered safe. It is suitable as a long-term treatment in patients with generalized non-progressive milder disease, and as an adjunctive therapy in patients with severe disease who are also receiving immunotherapy. Novel AChE inhibitors with oral antisense oligonucleotides have been developed and preliminary results appear to be promising. In general, however, AChE inhibitors provide only partial benefit and most patients eventually switch to long-term immunosuppressive therapies, most frequently corticosteroids and/or azathioprine. Although AChE inhibitors are known to be well tolerated and effective in relieving the symptoms of MG, further efforts are required to improve treatment options for the management of this disorder.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Phillips 2nd LH. The epidemiology of myasthenia gravis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003 Sep; 998: 407–12
Meriggioli MN, Sanders DB. Autoimmune myasthenia gravis: emerging clinical and biological heterogeneity. Lancet Neurol 2009 May; 8(5): 475–90
Aarli JA. Myasthenia gravis in the elderly: is it different? Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1132: 238–43
Aragones JM, Bolibar I, Bonfill X, et al. Myasthenia gravis: a higher than expected incidence in the elderly. Neurology 2003 Mar 25; 60(6): 1024–6
Vincent A, Clover L, Buckley C, et al. Evidence of underdiagnosis of myasthenia gravis in older people. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003 Aug; 74(8): 1105–8
Grob D, Brunner N, Namba T, et al. Lifetime course of myasthenia gravis. Muscle Nerve 2008 Feb; 37(2): 141–9
Wolfe GI, Oh SJ. Clinical phenotype of muscle-specific tyrosine kinase-antibody-positive myasthenia gravis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1132: 71–5
Leite MI, Jacob S, Viegas S, et al. IgG1 antibodies to acetylcholine receptors in ‘seronegative’ myasthenia gravis. Brain 2008 Jul; 131 (Pt 7): 1940–52
Drachman DB. Myasthenia gravis. N Engl J Med 1994 Jun 23; 330(25): 1797–810
Selcen D, Fukuda T, Shen XM, et al. Are MuSK antibodies the primary cause of myasthenic symptoms? Neurology 2004 Jun 8; 62(11): 1945–50
Shiraishi H, Motomura M, Yoshimura T, et al. Acetylcho-line receptors loss and postsynaptic damage in MuSK antibody-positive myasthenia gravis. Ann Neurol 2005 Feb; 57(2): 289–93
Evoli A, Minisci C, Di Schino C, et al. Thymoma in patients with MG: characteristics and long-term outcome. Neurology 2002 Dec 24; 59(12): 1844–50
Maggi L, Andreetta F, Antozzi C, et al. Thymoma-associated myasthenia gravis: outcome, clinical and pathological correlations in 197 patients on a 20-year experience. J Neuroimmunol 2008 Sep 15; 201–202: 237–44
Pascuzzi RM. The edrophonium test. Semin Neurol 2003 Mar; 23(1): 83–8
Luchanok U, Kaminski HJ. Ocular myasthenia: diagnostic and treatment recommendations and the evidence base. Curr Opin Neurol 2008 Feb; 21(1): 8–15
Jaretzki 3rd A, Barohn RJ, Ernstoff RM, et al. Myasthenia gravis: recommendations for clinical research standards. Task Force of the Medical Scientific Advisory Board of the Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America. Neurology 2000 Jul 12; 55(1): 16–23
Mantegazza R, Antozzi C, Peluchetti D, et al. Azathioprine as a single drug or in combination with steroids in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. J Neurol 1988 Nov; 235(8): 449–53
Skeie GO, Apostolski S, Evoli A, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of autoimmune neuromuscular transmission disorders. Eur J Neurol 2006 Jul; 13(7): 691–9
Valeant Pharmaceuticals. Mestinon (pyridostigmine bro-mide syrup) prescribing information: syrup, tablets and Timespan tablets, 2008 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.valeant.com/fileRepository/products/PI/Mestinon_Suspension_60 mg-Tablet_60-180mg_PI_May01.pdf [Accessed 2010 Apr 13]
Berrouschot J, Baumann I, Kalischewski P, et al. Therapy of myasthenic crisis. Crit Care Med 1997 Jul; 25(7): 1228–35
Cook MR, Graham C, Sastre A, et al. Physiological and performance effects of pyridostigmine bromide in healthy volunteers: a dose-response study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002 Jul; 162(2): 186–92
Henze T. Therapy of myasthenia gravis with cholinesterase inhibitors: principles and pharmacologic monitoring. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 1996 Mar; 64(3): 110–21
Henze T, Nenner M, Michaelis HC. Determination of erythrocyte-bound acetylcholinesterase activity for monitoring pyridostigmine therapy in myasthenia gravis. J Neurol 1991 Jul; 238(4): 225–9
Aquilonius SM, Eckernas SA, Hartvig P, et al. Clinical pharmacology of pyridostigmine and neostigmine in patients with myasthenia gravis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983 Oct; 46(10): 929–35
Breyer-Pfaff U, Schmezer A, Maier U, et al. Neuromuscular function and plasma drug levels in pyridostigmine treatment of myasthenia gravis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990 Jun; 53(6): 502–6
Milner-Brown HS, Mellenthin M, Sharma ML, et al. Quantitative correlation between plasma pyridostigmine levels and neuromuscular function in myasthenia gravis. Neurology 1987 May; 37(5): 800–3
Young WL, Matteo RS, Ornstein E. Duration of action of neostigmine and pyridostigmine in the elderly. Anesth Analg 1988 Aug; 67(8): 775–8
Aquilonius SM, Hartvig P. Clinical pharmacokinetics of cholinesterase inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet 1986 May–Jun; 11(3): 236–49
Vincent A, Drachman DB. Myasthenia gravis. Adv Neurol 2002; 88: 159–88
Chiang LM, Darras BT, Kang PB. Juvenile myasthenia gravis. Muscle Nerve 2009 Apr; 39(4): 423–31
Engel AG, Hohlfeld RR. Acquired autoimmune myasthenia gravis. In: Engel AG, Franzini-Armstrong C, editors. Myology. 3rd ed. New York (NY): McGraw Hill, 2004: 1755–90
Sieb JP, Kohler W. Benefits from sustained-release pyridostigmine bromide in myasthenia gravis: results of a prospective multicenter open-label trial. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2010 Nov; 112(9): 781–4
Osserman KE, Teng P, Kaplan LI. Studies in myasthenia gravis; preliminary report on therapy with mestinon bromide. JAMA 1954 Jul 10; 155(11): 961–5
Schwab RS, Timberlake WH. Pyridostigmin (mestinon) in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. N Engl J Med 1954 Aug 12; 251(7): 271–2
Tether JE. Mestinon in myasthenia gravis (preliminary report). Dis Nerv Syst 1954; 15: 227–31
Westerberg MR, Magee KR. Mestinon in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. Neurology 1954 Oct; 4(10): 762–72
Mantegazza R, Beghi E, Pareyson D, et al. A multicentre follow-up study of 1152 patients with myasthenia gravis in Italy. J Neurol 1990 Oct; 237(6): 339–44
Beekman R, Kuks JB, Oosterhuis HJ. Myasthenia gravis: diagnosis and follow-up of 100 consecutive patients. J Neurol 1997 Feb; 244(2): 112–8
Kupersmith MJ. Ocular myasthenia gravis: treatment successes and failures in patients with long-term follow-up. J Neurol 2009; 256(8): 1314–20
Chirapapaisan N, Tanormrod S, Chuenkongkaew W. Factors associated with insensitivity to pyridostigmine therapy in Thai patients with ocular myasthenia gravis. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 2007 Mar; 25(1): 13–6
Evoli A, Bianchi MR, Riso R, et al. Response to therapy in myasthenia gravis with anti-MuSK antibodies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1132: 76–83
Hatanaka Y, Hemmi S, Morgan MB, et al. Nonresponsiveness to anticholinesterase agents in patients with MuSK-antibody-positive MG. Neurology 2005 Nov 8; 65(9): 1508–9
Oosterhuis HJ. The natural course of myasthenia gravis: a long term follow up study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989 Oct; 52(10): 1121–7
Punga AR, Sawada M, Stalberg EV. Electrophysiological signs and the prevalence of adverse effects of acetyl-cholinesterase inhibitors in patients with myasthenia gravis. Muscle Nerve 2008 Mar; 37(3): 300–7
Shapira M, Tur-Kaspa I, Bosgraaf L, et al. A transcription-activating polymorphism in the ACHE promoter associated with acute sensitivity to anti-acetylcholinesterases. Hum Molec Genet 2000 May 22; 9(9): 1273–81
Lucas KE, Rowe PC, Armenian HK. Latency and exposure-health associations in Gulf War veterans with early fatigue onsets: a case-control study. Ann Epidemiol 2007 Oct; 17(10): 799–806
Evoli A, Tonali PA, Padua L, et al. Clinical correlates with anti-MuSK antibodies in generalized seronegative myasthenia gravis. Brain 2003 Oct; 126 (Pt 10): 2304–11
Punga AR, Flink R, Askmark H, et al. Cholinergic neuromuscular hyperactivity in patients with myasthenia gravis seropositive for MuSK antibody. Muscle Nerve 2006 Jul; 34(1): 111–5
Ahmed S, Kirmani JF, Janjua N, et al. An update on myasthenic crisis. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2005 Mar; 7(2): 129–41
Jani-Acsadi A, Lisak RP. Myasthenic crisis: guidelines for prevention and treatment. J Neurol Sci 2007 Oct 15; 261(1–2): 127–33
Lacomis D. Myasthenic crisis. Neurocrit Care 2005; 3(3): 189–94
Thomas CE, Mayer SA, Gungor Y, et al. Myasthenic crisis: clinical features, mortality, complications, and risk factors for prolonged intubation. Neurology 1997 May; 48(5): 1253–60
Engel AG, Lambert EH, Santa T. Study of long-term anticholinesterase therapy: effects on neuromuscular transmission and on motor end-plate fine structure. Neurology 1973 Dec; 23(12): 1273–81
Tripathi M, Kaushik S, Dubey P. The effect of use of pyridostigmine and requirement of vecuronium in patients with myasthenia gravis. J Postgrad Med 2003 Oct–Dec; 49(4): 311–4
Ferrero S, Pretta S, Nicoletti A, et al. Myasthenia gravis: management issues during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2005 Aug 1; 121(2): 129–38
Hoff JM, Daltveit AK, Gilhus NE. Myasthenia gravis in pregnancy and birth: identifying risk factors, optimising care. Eur J Neurol 2007 Jan; 14(1): 38–43
Argov Z, McKee D, Agus S, et al. Treatment of human myasthenia gravis with oral antisense suppression of acetylcholinesterase. Neurology 2007 Aug 14; 69(7): 699–700
Sussman JD, Argov Z, McKee D, et al. Antisense treatment for myasthenia gravis: experience with monarsen. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1132: 283–90
Pascuzzi RM, Coslett HB, Johns TR. Long-term corticosteroid treatment of myasthenia gravis: report of 116 patients. Ann Neurol 1984 Mar; 15(3): 291–8
Sghirlanzoni A, Peluchetti D, Mantegazza R, et al. Myasthenia gravis: prolonged treatment with steroids. Neurology 1984 Feb; 34(2): 170–4
Schneider-Gold C, Gajdos P, Toyka KV, et al. Corticosteroids for myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 2: CD002828
Hertel G, Mertens HG, Reuther P, et al. The treatment of myasthenia gravis with azathioprine. In: Dau PC, editor. Plasmapheresis and immunobiology of myasthenia gravis. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin, 2008: 315–28
Mertens HG, Balzereit F, Leipert M. The treatment of severe myasthenia gravis with immunosuppressive agents. Eur Neurol 1969; 2: 321–39
Hart IK, Sathasivam S, Sharshar T. Immunosuppressive agents for myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4: CD005224
Palace J, Newsom-Davis J, Lecky B. A randomized double-blind trial of prednisolone alone or with azathioprine in myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia Gravis Study Group. Neurology 1998 Jun; 50(6): 1778–83
Nagane Y, Utsugisawa K, Obara D, et al. Efficacy of low-dose FK506 in the treatment of Myasthenia gravis: a randomized pilot study. Eur Neurol 2005; 53(3): 146–50
Muscle Study Group. A trial of mycophenolate mofetil with prednisone as initial immunotherapy in myasthenia gravis. Neurology 2008 Aug 5; 71(6): 394–9
Sanders DB, Hart IK, Mantegazza R, et al. An international, phase III, randomized trial of mycophenolate mofetil in myasthenia gravis. Neurology 2008 Aug 5; 71(6): 400–6
De Feo LG, Schottlender J, Martelli NA, et al. Use of intravenous pulsed cyclophosphamide in severe, generalized myasthenia gravis. Muscle Nerve 2002 Jul; 26(1): 31–6
Drachman DB, Adams RN, Hu R, et al. Rebooting the immune system with high-dose cyclophosphamide for treatment of refractory myasthenia gravis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1132: 305–14
Mantegazza R, Baggi F, Antozzi C, et al. Myasthenia gravis (MG): epidemiological data and prognostic factors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003 Sep; 998: 413–23
Gilbert ME, De Sousa EA, Savino PJ. Ocular myasthenia gravis treatment: the case against prednisone therapy and thymectomy. Arch Neurol 2007 Dec; 64(12): 1790–2
Gajdos P, Chevret S, Toyka K. Plasma exchange for myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 4: CD002275
Gajdos P, Chevret S, Toyka K. Intravenous immunoglobulin for myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 1: CD002277
Illa I, Diaz-Manera J, Rojas-Garcia R, et al. Sustained response to rituximab in anti-AChR and anti-MuSK positive myasthenia gravis patients. J Neuroimmunol 2008 Sep 15; 201–202: 90–4
Lebrun C, Bourg V, Tieulie N, et al. Successful treatment of refractory generalized myasthenia gravis with rituximab. Eur J Neurol 2009 Feb; 16(2): 246–50
Nelson Jr RP, Pascuzzi RM, Kessler K, et al. Rituximab for the treatment of thymoma-associated and de novo myasthenia gravis: 3 cases and review. J Clin Neuromuscul Dis 2009 Jun; 10(4): 170–7
Stieglbauer K, Topakian R, Schaffer V, et al. Rituximab for myasthenia gravis: three case reports and review of the literature. J Neurol Sci 2009 May 15; 280(1–2): 120–2
Christadoss P, Goluszko E. Treatment of experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis with recombinant human tumor necrosis factor receptor Fc protein. J Neuroimmunol 2002 Jan; 122(1–2): 186–90
Rowin J, Meriggioli MN, Tuzun E, et al. Etanercept treatment in corticosteroid-dependent myasthenia gravis. Neurology 2004 Dec 28; 63(12): 2390–2
Tuzun E, Meriggioli MN, Rowin J, et al. Myasthenia gravis patients with low plasma IL-6 and IFN-gamma benefit from etanercept treatment. J Autoimmun 2005 May; 24(3): 261–8
Fee DB, Kasarskis EJ. Myasthenia gravis associated with etanercept therapy. Muscle Nerve 2009 Jun; 39(6): 866–70
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Tracy Harrison of inScience Communications, a Wolters Kluwer business, who provided medical writing support funded by Meda Pharmaceuticals Inc., Solna, Stockholm, Sweden. Dr Mantegazza has received a speaker honorarium from Meda Pharmaceuticals Inc. Dr Maggi has no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the contents of this review.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maggi, L., Mantegazza, R. Treatment of Myasthenia Gravis. Clin. Drug Investig. 31, 691–701 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2165/11593300-000000000-00000
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11593300-000000000-00000